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ADVERTISING HISTORY AT THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN HISTORY
THE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF BUSINESS, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY
CHOOSING THE RIGHT REPOSITORY: PROVISIONAL BUSINESS ARCHIVES SECTION GUIDELINES
ORAL HISTORY AS PART OF A CORPORATE ARCHIVES PROGRAM
by Claudette John, CIGNA Corporation
In the Spring issue of the Business Archives Newsletter "Dialogue" addressed the importance of oral history as a tool for documenting 20th century history. I discussed the advantages of making the program part of the ArchiveÂs responsibility, and the necessity of confronting legal concerns in the planning stages. This column presents two questions, followed by my own admittedly subjective answers, for your consideration and discussion.
Is it necessary to transcribe all interviews? I know of one major oral history program÷not corporate÷which transcribes only a small percentage of its interviews. To date we have transcribed all oral histories, but we are still working on the priority interviews. When those are completed, we may very well reassess that policy. Since I consider the tape the primary document in oral history, transcription is really a matter of choice. My major concern is for preservation. Paper is definitely a more stable medium than audiotape, and since we use the oral histories mainly as sources of information and perspective on business, the transcripts are the more convenient form. I can think of numerous instances where you might not transcribe, linguistic studies, for example, or folklore. Are there legal issues or legitimate practical concerns that make it advisable to transcribe interviews? Is it advisable to transcribe what might be quoted in a publication? I would certainly evaluate those possibilities before changing our current procedure.
Should I edit the transcript? Yes, if you want the interviewee to review and approve it. And I believe that every interviewee should have an opportunity to review his transcript for accuracy. Transcribers do make mistakes. The tape may not be clear, or the transcriber may simply misunderstand what is said. There may be an obvious error in fact÷an incorrect name, date or place. Innocent, straight÷forward errors should be corrected in the transcript. Clarifications and additional information may be included as footnotes.
Acceptable spoken and written English differ greatly÷ sometimes, I think, to the point of being almost two different languages. It is often necessary to do some judicious editing so a person who is articulate on tape "sounds" that way in print. Of far greater importance is editing for clarity. The speakerÂs voice carries the listener through long, complicated, often convoluted sentences where inflection, emphasis and repetition flag the important elements of the narrative and make it easy to follow. Transcribe that verbatim, punctuate it liberally with "uhmms" and "ahhs," season it with occasional mid÷stream changes in tense or number, and you have a maze that requires substantial effort for the reader to master. But on the tape it all sounds fine, informal and like normal conversation÷because it is.
Having said that I edit transcripts when it is necessary to do so, I should go on to say that it must be done very carefully. You donÂt want to lose the unique characteristics of the intervieweeÂs speech and personality. You can prune excess verbiage and rearrange phrases so that the order is suitable to written English, but do retain repetition or unusual syntax for emphasis, clarity and insight. If sentence fragments and punctuation present problems, as they do in some transcriptions, you may find an acceptable model in printed dialogue or good journal interviews. Literary elegance is not a legitimate reason to edit business oral history transcripts. Clarity is. Edit as much as necessary, but as little as possible. The tape, after all, is the primary record. And that remains unchanged.
In the spring newsletter "Dialogue" will continue with part 3 of "Oral History As Part of A Corporate Archives Program." The topic will be interviewing÷techniques, questions, etc. If you have questions or comments on this column or wish to contribute in advance to the discussion of interviewing, please address the author of this article (Philadelphia, PA 19103), (215) 523÷3293, or the Business Archives Newsletter editor.
ORAL HISTORY AS PART OF A CORPORATE ARCHIVES PROGRAM
By Claudette John, CIGNA Corporation
This year both of the "Dialogue" columns will be devoted to the subject of oral history as part of a corporate archives program. In this issue I shall discuss briefly my reasons for changing from skeptic to advocate for corporate oral history and the need for a formal written agreement between the collecting institution and the program participants.
What is oral history, and why should a business be interested in supporting an oral history program? The Oral History Association, in its evaluation guidelines, recognizes oral history as "a method of gathering and preserving historical information in spoken form." I find Jim FogertyÂs definition more appropriate for a corporate program; he writes, "While the data that becomes oral history is present in the minds of potential narrators, it does not exist in any organized, collectible form. It must, rather, be created ÷ and not alone, but through the interaction of an interviewer with the narrator."
Considering the recognized and frequently discussed expense of an oral history program, the "why" is a bit more complicated. Institutional archivists must be concerned with developing a collection that reflects as accurately as possible the life of the corporate entity. And how does one do that in the twentieth century without employing twentieth-century tools? How many business people keep diaries or journals today? The answer, for all practical purposes is "none." An appointment book is about as close as you can hope to get. Even memos to file summarizing telephone calls, telexes and private meetings are becoming scarce. And records of conversations that took place on the golf course and in the company jet, or decisions made "after dinner, smoking a good cigar," are totally lacking. (Quote is from a 1983 interview with a corporate executive.) Charles Morrissey notes in his introduction to the recent interdisciplinary anthology, Oral History, that "Surprisingly, one of the most neglected areas (of oral history] is among the most crucial: the role of business enterprise in modern America. Businessmen have been tardy in telling the story of American business to oral historians; the story of entrepreneurism and the skills it requires has rarely been voiced on tape."
If, for the sake of argument, we agree that oral history is a necessary tool for documenting the twentieth÷century corporation, the reasons for making the program part of the Archives responsibility are apparent. Research materials are readily available in the Archives. Program needs can be assessed with relative ease; the archivist is probably all too aware of which parts of the record are incomplete. If the archives staff plans and directs the program from the outset, it is far more likely that the interviews will be broadly based, a true primary resource usable to answer a variety of questions and serve a variety of needs, some of them quite unforeseeable when the interviews are taking place. Locating the program with the Archives also guarantees that the interviews will be properly catalogued, preserved and made available to researchers by professionals who are aware of the associated legal and ethical constraints, which are as important to program participants as they are to the company.
At CIGNA we have used oral history interviews to acquire information that is not available in any of the more traditional forms, to document decisions and the perspectives of decision-makers, to fill gaps in administrative history and to point the way through processing mazes. Significantly, if you want it to, an interview can also serve as a starting point for acquiring records, many of which will verify and augment the information discussed in the oral history session.
Let us continue by accepting as a given that the oral history program has been approved by management and funded in a more or less adequate fashion. Ideally, I would retain all program development, research, interviewing, transcribing, editing and processing as archives functions. Since that is rarely feasible, it is certainly possible to retain responsibility for all of these functions, reserving for staff those that staff can do best and contracting the remainder to an outside service. The archivist, or acting archivist, should always retain responsibility for program development and administrative control. It is possible to contract any mix of the remaining program elements to outside services depending upon the circumstances of funding, corporate philosophy, legal arrangements and the abilities of staff. So far in CIGNAÂs program, staff has done the interviews, some of the transcription and all of the editing. That mix will probably change from time to time, depending on changing circumstances.
One of the knottiest problems that a responsible oral historian faces is the legal agreement. Where this particular issue is concerned, a corporate archivist has the distinct advantage of having access to lawyers on staff or on retainer. Please, recognize the necessity of confronting this issue in the program development stage. I found Oral History and the Law by John Neuenschwander to be extremely helpful. After reading JohnÂs pamphlet, I was prepared to seek and profit from professional advice pertinent to our own special situation.
While it is generally understood that no agreement is necessary when an employee is interviewed by another employee, I prefer to use a formal written agreement for all oral histories. Our agreement has been designed as much to protect the people who have shared their perspectives and opinions with us as it has to protect CIGNA. For example, it prevents the appropriation of one intervieweeÂs material by others associated with the project. It guarantees, in legal terms, our ethical responsibility to honor an intervieweeÂs request to close an oral history for a specified period.
We ask the interviewee to sign two copies of the agreement when the interview is over. If there is a series of interviews, one agreement is used for the entire memoir, and the agreement is signed at the end of the final interview. One copy is given to the interviewee and the other is brought back to the Archives. The interviewer signs every agreement even though he usually is an employee.
Finally a word about copyright. Facts and theories in the public domain-- information--cannot be copyrighted, only the particular expression of them created by the oral history interview. Since considerable resources and effort have been expended to create and preserve this record, the company reserves to itself the right to decide on its use. Notice of our claim to copyright is given to anyone with access to the materials by marking all transcripts and tapes: C (year), CIGNA Corporation, All rights reserved."
In the fall newsletter "Dialogue" will continue with part 2 of "Oral History as Part of a Corporate Archives Program." I plan to address topics such as: to transcribe or not to transcribe; is the tape or the transcript the primary record? interviewing; editing; preparing finding aids; and, is oral history really a primary resource? To the final question, I am going to answer a qualified "Yes." I hope that I may be able to incorporate questions and comments from YOU as well. Please address: Claudette John, CIGNA Corporation, Archives, Philadelphia, PA 19103, or the editor of this newsletter.
ADVERTISING HISTORY AT THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN HISTORY
by John A. Fleckner, Smithsonian Institution
Advertisements, in all their varied forms, are a significant part of the permanent collections at the National Museum of American History. Their value to the Museum derives from their complex inter-relationships with the three-dimensional objects which constitute the MuseumÂs primary holdings.
At the simplest level ads help to document the dates, prices, uses and other "facts" which make objects historical rather than merely aesthetic. At a more sophisticated level, ads carry (and reveal) the "affective" content of physical objects--the symbolic and emotional values and meanings which we assign to objects, especially to mass produced consumer goods.
For instance, if you spent the last twenty years off the planet a can of Coke or Pepsi is simply a twelve ounce container of sugar water, flavoring, and carbonation. For everyone else the object is associated--not far below the conscious level--with a wealth of visual and aural imagery. ItÂs "Come Alive, YouÂre in the Pepsi Generation," "ItÂs the Real Thing," small children and puppies, and California beach scenes. Pepsi÷Cola company research once claimed that two÷thirds of all Americans considered themselves in the "Pepsi Generation."
The National Museum of American History has outstanding collections of advertisements. The two major ones ÷ acquired more than a decade ago-are the Warshaw Collection of advertising ephemera and the N. W. Ayer advertising agency proof sheets. Together they comprise more than 1,000 cubic feet of materials. The collections are regularly used by scholars, students, exhibits designers, television producers, and researchers for magazine and book publishers.
Since 1984, the Archives Center, through its Modern Advertising Program, has been complementing these collections of ads by creating and collecting documentation on the process of advertising ÷ a process which the ads themselves skillfully obscure. In a series of projects, focusing on major advertising campaigns in the post-World War II period, the Museum is conducting interviews, gathering print and electronic ads, and acquiring a very small quantity of personal papers.
Already the Program has studied advertisements for Pepsi-Cola, Marlboro cigarettes, and Alka-Seltzer. The purpose of these projects is to understand the process of advertising from the perspective of its creators: corporate executives and ad agency directors, marketing professionals, and "the "The primary objective is archival: to build a record for future writers, students, media producers: and others who will study what is surely one of the most significant aspects of the modern corporate world and of contemporary popular culture. Each project has been supported, in part, by a grant from the cooperating corporation.
As a part of a very public institution, the Modern Advertising History Program also takes an interest in bringing this story to a wider audience. For example, project staff developed a brief video program and a one-case exhibit with the "Pepsi Generation" project. Each project has produced a chapter length narrative history based on interviews and research and these will be published as a book of case studies in modern advertising.
What is in all this for the cooperating corporations? For Pepsi-Cola it was an opportunity to create a record of an achievement in which the company takes great pride but which was almost entirely undocumented, in part because of the absence of a corporate archival program. It also was an opportunity to recognize the work of many dedicated individuals.
On the other hand, Miles Laboratories -- makers of Alka-Seltzer ÷ has an excellent corporate archives program. Working closely with corporate archivist Don Yates, the MuseumÂs project will help to flesh out Miles documentation of Alka-SeltzerÂs advertising campaigns. It will build on the written record and on existing oral histories. As outsiders we can bring the prestige and detachment of the Smithsonian Institution. As collaborators with Miles we have the support necessary for access to busy and often cautious business people. Finally, there is an undeniable presti9e and public exposure value in an association with the Smithsonian Institution. And, although the Smithsonian Institution carefully protects the use of its name, this association is a powerful incentive to corporate support.
Over the past three years the Modern Advertising History Program has worked closely with corporate sponsors to enrich the record of recent corporate history and to make substantial contributions to the Smithsonian InstitutionÂs research resources. We look forward to continuing this productive relationship. Business archivists wishing further information about this program are invited to write or call at the Archives Center, Room C34O, NMAH, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, (202) 357÷3270.
THE CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF BUSINESS, TECHNOLOGY. AND SOCIETY
by Elizabeth Gray Kogen, Hagley Museum and Library
The Center for the History of Business, Technology, and Society is an outgrowth of the Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington, Delaware, one of the nationÂs leading centers for the study of business history. Formed in 1986, the Center seeks to facilitate and improve communication among corporate archivists, curators, records mangers, businessmen and women, and historians through special projects, programs and publications. The HagleyÂs rich and varied resources put the Center in a unique position to serve archivists, records mangers, historians, and businessmen and women. Several of the CenterÂs activities are described below.
In the spring of 1986 an informal meeting was held to discuss the need for a study of and report on the records of business and industry similar to that of the Joint Committee on the Appraisal of the Records of Science and Technology (JCAST). The Hagley Museum and Library, and specifically the Center, agreed to design a study incorporating these views and interests, write a proposal, seek funding for the project, and conduct and publish the study.
Since then, a project has been designed, a proposal written, and an informal discussion of the project held at the 1987 Business History Conference in Wilmington. The project consists of three sections: a discussion of the issues involved in acquiring and retaining corporate records; an historiographical essay treating the uses of these records within and outside of the corporation; and, the core of the study, an appraisal manual. Primary authors of the manual are Francis X. Blouin (Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan), Michael Nash (Hagley Museum and Library), and Christopher Baer (Hagley Museum and Library). The project is planned to involve its target audience--business executives, historians, archivists, and records managers÷throughout the process. For example, the authors will seek the advice of corporate archivists on various points; and Karen Benedict will arrange and chair periodic seminars for the purpose of critiquing drafts of manual articles.
The project will begin in 1988 and run for two years. The Center will then publish and distribute the study.
On Monday, October 5, 1987, the Center will sponsor a one-day conference on "History and the Corporation" at the Hagley Museum and Library. Two papers on corporations use of the historical record in response to legal action will comprise the morning program. The afternoon session will be devoted to a panel commentary and discussion of the two papers and the broader issues involved. Participants will include Henry Hanson, president of Chiefton Industries; Louis Galambos, professor of history, Johns Hopkins University; Robert Lewis of AT&T; and Thomas Huertas of Citibank. Harold Anderson, vice president of Wells Fargo Bank, will give the keynote address, and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Straus Professor of Business History, Harvard Business School, will chair the afternoon panel.
During the summer of 1987 the Center will publish the first issue of its semi-annual "Business History Bulletin." The "Bulletin" is designed to be a forum for the exchange of information by those who read, write, practice, use, and commission business history. The "Bulletin" will contain articles, written by businessmen and women, historians, archivists, and curators, illustrating the uses of business history (e.g., advertising and public relations), as well as traditional scholarly works. All members of the SAA Business Archives Section will receive the "Bulletin" free of charge.
For information about the Center or any of its programs, contact Elizabeth Gray Kogen, Executive Administrator, Hagley Museum and Library, P.O. Box 3630, Wilmington, DE 19807, (302) 658-2400, ext. 243.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT REPOSITORY: PROVISIONAL BUSINESS ARCHIVES SECTION GUIDELINES
Every business, regardless of its age, has archival records. "Archival" means of permanent historical, informational, administrative, legal or fiscal value. "Records" may include textual, cartographic, audio÷visual, and machine÷readable documents as well as photographs, prints, graphics, paintings, and artifacts. These records, however, only retain their value to the company if they are accessible and used. While an increasing number of companies are establishing archives within their own institutions, other businesses and corporations are donating their archival records to historical societies or research libraries.
Every company first should decide what archival records it has, how useful the records are to the operation, and whether it wishes to establish its own archives. The Business Archives Section of the Society of American Archivists can provide guidance and a bibliography of articles to help in setting up a professionally designed and managed archives. After considering its options, the company may decide to investigate the possibility of donating its archival records to an outside repository. The Company needs to find a repository whose staff can arrange and describe the materials so that they are accessible to the company as well as to other researchers, and can provide adequate reference service.
Shopping for the right repository for oneÂs archival materials can be as complicated as picking the right computer system and may take as much effort. No one can make the choice for you, but if these guidelines can demystify the process by suggesting some of the questions you will have to answer. HereÂs a description of how your company should proceed.
Identifying Materials to be Donated. The corporation must first decide what it is willing to donate.
What records are archival? Definitions and sample lists are available through SAA.
What archival records does the Company have? Are they located in one department or scattered throughout the company? The corporation may need to hire an archivist on a temporary basis just to survey and identify the archival materials.
Is the Company seeking a repository for a one÷time donation or is the Company seeking a repository that can provide archival services and accept records on a continuing basis?
Is the Company willing to accept the repositoryÂs guidelines on access to its records and to relinquish sole control over its records?
Repositories want records that eventually will be open to researchers. They are not off-site storage facilities or commercial records centers leasing space to the Company.
Once the archival records to be donated are identified, legal counsel should determine if there are any problems involved in donating the materials, e.g. are there copyright or confidentiality questions regarding any of the materials, are the materials the property of the Company or do other organizations or people have claims to the records? The Legal Department also should indicate which Company staff person is authorized to legally transfer the title of Company records. A resolution of the Board, signed by the Secretary of the corporation, may be the appropriate mechanism.
If the records cannot be donated legally, a repository may agree to take the records on deposit. The Company retains ownership but the records are sent to the repository for a stated number of years where they may be arranged and described and made available to researchers on the same basis as if the collection were donated.
Are the Materials Useful to the Company? Decide how frequently the Company would need to refer to the archival materials it wishes to donate.
Does Public Relations use the materials for newsletters, internal exhibits, or presentations?
Does Legal or Finance require reference access to minutes or statements of condition?
Does Marketing and Advertising use historical information in campaigns or presentations?
Do senior executives refer to past achievements in speeches or review past policies or decisions prior to meetings?
WhatÂs done for employee, Company, and client anniversaries?
If the materials the Company wishes to donate have continuing use to the corporation, choose a repository in your own city, within 24-hour delivery service, or within driving distance so that Company employees can do the research themselves. If you cannot find the right repository nearby, make sure the agreement with the repository you select enables you to get prompt reference service and reproductions of materials within what management considers a reasonable time. Remember that types and numbers of reproductions requested affects turnaround time, and that most repositories do not have facsimile or other transmission equipment. The computer age may be upon us but non-profit historical organizations cannot, as a rule, convey images elec-tronically via a computer network.
Locating Potential Repositories.
What repositories are available?
Can they provide continuity of service?
The most likely repositories are major public libraries, major universities, city, county and state historical societies, and members of the Independent Research Libraries Association. One way of finding "established" repositories is to look at the directories of historical organizations prepared by The American Association for State and Local History and the National His-torical Publications and Records Commission. Research centers for special topics, e.g. The Center for History of Chemistry, often know the repositories that contain records in their partic-ular field. A consulting archivist or a Company librarian should be able to create a list of potential repositories for your materials.
Records of archival value should remain together. Do not allow a repository to pull selected valuable documents from your records. Do not consider donating your records to several dif-ferent repositories, e.g. engineering drawings to one institu-tion, photographs to a second, and minutes of board meetings to a third. Similarly, do not donate officers records to their indi-vidual alma maters. Archival records continue to be created every day. You should donate archival records at regular inter-vals to the repository you select.
What to Ask Potential Repositories. Approach an institu-tion. A telephone call to the manuscripts department should get you a quick "yes, we might be interested" or "no, itÂs not the type of material we collect." If the response is "no," ask for suggestions of appropriate repositories. If "yes," ask for a copy of the repositoryÂs mission statement, collecting policy, the last three years annual reports (financial and narrative), and deed of gift or deposit agreement.
The mission statement and collecting policy will tell you what role the institution sees for itself, and what it collects by geographic region, type of materials, date range, and subject matter. Does the institution have business records similar to yours or will your CompanyÂs records fall outside the repositoryÂs prior experience? Would researchers expect to find such a collection at the repository?
The annual reports will indicate the repositoryÂs financial condition and how much money it devotes to the preservation, arrangement, and reference service for its collections. It will also list the board of trustees, some of whom might be business colleagues from whom you can get further information about the institution.
The deed of gift will point out the terms and conditions the institution considers when accepting donations of materials. The deposit agreement will state the costs and other terms and condi-tions of the repository if it agrees to take records on deposit. The lack of any of these documents may suggest a less than professional organization.
What to Look For When You Visit Potential Repositories.
If the institution appears on paper to be a responsible, viable organization, arrange to visit it. If you donÂt know much about the operations of an archives, and most people donÂt, take along a consulting archivist, a Company librarian, public relations person or anyone who has good judgment and understands how the Company uses its archival materials. In addition to speaking with the director of the repository, talk to the staff in the areas where your materials would be housed. Visit the records storage area, the area where your materials would be sorted and arranged for use, and the reference area.
Is the physical space adequate?
Are there environmental controls that will limit the deterioration of paper and other types of material?
How much of a backlog of "unprocessed" collections, i.e. materials that have not yet been arranged and described, is there?
What are the qualifications of the staff?
What is the staff turnover figure?
How many researchers use the facility and who are they? What is the purpose of their research? What books and articles have been published using collections similar to yours?
What other companies have donated materials? Get references.
Most important, whatÂs your "gut feeling" about the institu-tion and its people? If you are not satisfied, keep looking. You and your successors must live with the choice for years to come.
Costs of Donating Materials. If you have found the right repository, donate the materials. Be prepared to pay some of the associated costs. Some archives and research libraries estimate that it takes two people÷days to arrange and describe one cubic foot of materials. Increasingly, for large collections (fifty cubic feet or more), repositories request the donor to provide funding for the labor involved in arranging and describing the collection so that the information and materials are accessible to researchers. Without additional financial support, a repository may accept the records but be able to do little more than add them to the shelves of unprocessed collections where they may remain for years, of no use to you or anyone else.
The repository may also ask the Company to pick up the transportation expenses and shelving costs if it is accepting a large collection.
If you plan to rely on the reference service of the repository rather than having your own staff do the research, determine an hourly rate for the specialized reference service you may need, including reproduction costs. The Company may also wish to fund the publication of the finding aid to its collec-tion.
The Company will be entering a long-term relationship with the repository it chooses. In addition to financial support for its own records, the Company should become a corporate member of the institution, and make an annual contribution to the operating fund. A senior manager might participate in the governance of the repository, and the Company might offer services in kind, e.g. loaning a systems analyst, or advertising for volunteers among its retired employees to work in the institution.
The Legal Agreement. Make sure the deed of gift you and the repository sign covers all questions of access and ownership.
Do you wish the records available to any researcher who meets the requirements of the repository or must they first obtain the CompanyÂs written permission?
Do you wish to restrict the use of a portion of the records, and for how long?
Do you wish to transfer copyright to the repository?
Even though copyright is transferred, do you wish to be informed of publication and reproduction from your records?
May copies of the donated records be deposited for use in other institutions?
Do you wish to place restrictions on reproductions of records for reference use?
Do you wish to be able to borrow some of the records?
Does the repository have your permission to dispose of unwanted records it discovers when "processing" the collection or do you wish them returned to the company?
Many of the same questions should be answered if the Company is depositing its archival records. The repositoryÂs charge for processing, and for making a microfilm or other copy of the collection before returning the records to the Company should be determined.
Conclusion. Archival records are a unique corporate asset that appreciate in value. Finding the right repository can ensure that your records will serve you and be of use and interest to others. If you wish additional information or advice, contact the Society of American Archivists, 600 South Federal, Suite 504, Chicago, IL 60605 (312) 922÷1040, and ask for the name and telephone number of the chairperson of the Business Archives Section.