The managerial philosophy that emerged, first in the railroads and later in manufacturing firms, sought to achieve better control of business processes and outcomes by imposing system, in great part through formal communication. According to this philoso

The managerial philosophy that emerged, first in the railroads and later in manufacturing firms, sought to achieve better control of business processes and outcomes by imposing system, in great part through formal communication. According to this philosophy or theory, which has been designated by Joseph Litterer as 'systematic management,' efficiency was to be gained by substituting managerially mandated systems for ad hoc decisions by individuals, whether owners, foremen, or workers. These systems were established, operated, evaluated, and adjusted – that is to say, managed or controlled – all on the basis of flows of information and orders. ¶ Systematic management was built on the assumption that individuals were less important than the systems they functioned within.